Rolls E.T. The Brain, Emotion, and Depression

Oxford University Press, 2018. — 330 p.There are myriad questions that emerge when one considers emotions and decision-making: What produces emotions? Why do we have emotions? How do we have emotions? Why do emotional states feel like something? What is the relationship between emotion, reward value, and subjective feelings of pleasure? How is the value of 'good' represented in the brain? Will neuroeconomics replace classical microeconomics? How does the brain implement decision-making? Are gene-defined rewards and emotions in the interests of the genes? Does rational multistep planning enable us to go beyond selfish genes to plans in the interests of the individual?
The Brain, Emotion, and Depression addresses these issues, providing a unified approach to emotion, reward value, economic value, decision-making, and their brain mechanisms. The evolutionary, adaptive value of the processes involved in emotion, the neural networks involved in emotion and decision making, and the issue of conscious emotional feelings are all considered.
The book will be valuable for those in the fields of neuroscience, neurology, psychology, psychiatry, biology, animal behaviour, economics, and philosophy from the advanced undergraduate level upwards, and for all interested in emotion and decision-making.Preface
Introduction: the issues
Introduction
Rewards and punishers, and learning about rewards and punishers: instrumental learning and stimulus–reinforcer association learning
The approaches taken to emotion and motivation: their causes, functions, adaptive value, and brain mechanisms
The causes of emotion
Explanation of emotion at the ‘ultimate’ level of causation
Explanation of emotion at the ‘proximate’ level of causation
The importance of understanding the primate, including human, brain
Functional neuroimaging in humans, neuronal encoding, and understanding the brain computationally
Emotion, motivation, and depression: the plan of the book
The nature of emotion
Introduction
The outline of a theory of emotion
Different emotions
Other theories of emotion
The James–Lange and other bodily theories of emotion including Damasio’s theory
Appraisal theory
Dimensional and categorical theories of emotion
Other approaches to emotion
Individual differences in emotion, personality, and emotional intelligence
Cognition and emotion
Emotion, motivation, reward, and mood
Advantages of the approach to emotion described here (Rolls’ theory of emotion)
The functions of emotion: reward, punishment, and emotion in brain design
Introduction
Brain design and the functions of emotion
Taxes, rewards, and punishers: gene-specified goals for actions, and the flexibility of actions
Taxes
Rewards and punishers
Stimulus–response (habit) learning reinforced by rewards and punishers
Stimulus–reinforcer association learning, and two-factor learning theory for instrumental actions
Explicit systems, language, and reinforcement
Special-purpose design by an external agent vs evolution by natural selection
Selection of behaviour: cost–benefit ‘analysis’ of net value
Further functions of emotion
Autonomic and endocrine responses
Flexibility of behavioural actions, because emotions are related to the rewards and punishers that specify the goals for action
Emotional states are motivating
Communication
Social attachment
Separate functions for each different primary reinforcer
The mood state can influence the cognitive evaluation of moods or memories
Facilitation of memory storage
Emotional and mood states are persistent, and help to produce persistent motivation
Emotions may trigger memory recall and influence cognitive processing
The functions of emotion in an evolutionary, Darwinian, context
The functions of motivation in an evolutionary, Darwinian, context
Are all goals for action gene-specified?
The brain mechanisms underlying emotion
Introduction
Overview of brain systems involved in emotion
Representations of primary reinforcers, ie of unlearned value
Taste
Smell
Pleasant and painful touch
Visual stimuli
Learning associations between stimuli and primary reinforcers: emotion-related learning
Emotion-related learning about visual stimuli in the orbitofrontal cortex
The visual inputs from the temporal lobe cortex to the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala for emotion-related learning
Pathways to the inferior temporal cortex (IT) in the primate visual system
Inferior temporal visual cortex neurons selective for face or object identity
Inferior temporal visual cortex neurons have transform invariant representations
The importance of what is at the fovea
Face expression neurons
The orbitofrontal cortex and emotion
Historical background
Phineas Gage
Prefrontal leucotomy
Connections of the orbitofrontal cortex
Neurophysiology and functional neuroimaging of the orbitofrontal cortex
Taste and oral texture: outcome value
An olfactory as well as a visual representation in the orbitofrontal cortex of expected value
Representations of many types of reward and punisher in the orbitofrontal cortex, including monetary reward
A representation of faces in the orbitofrontal cortex
Non-reward, error, neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex
Cognitive influences on the orbitofrontal cortex
Attentional modulation of affective vs sensory processing
The human orbitofrontal cortex
Overview
Orbitofrontal cortex damage impairs reward reversal learning in humans
Orbitofrontal cortex damage impairs face and voice expression identification
A neurophysiological and computational basis for stimulus–reinforcer association learning and reversal in the orbitofrontal cortex
The amygdala and emotion
Overview of the functions of the amygdala in emotion
The amygdala and the associative processes involved in emotion-related learning
Connections of the amygdala
Effects of amygdala lesions
Amygdala lesions in primates
Amygdala lesions in rats
Neuronal activity in the primate amygdala to reinforcing stimuli
Responses of primate amygdala neurons to novel stimuli that are reinforcing
Neuronal responses in the amygdala to faces
Evidence from humans
The cingulate cortex and emotion
Introduction and overview of the anterior cingulate cortex
Anterior cingulate cortex anatomy and connections
Anterior cingulate cortex functional neuroimaging and neuronal activity
Anterior cingulate cortex lesion effects
Mid-cingulate cortex, the cingulate motor area, and action–outcome learning
Insula
Effects of emotion on cognitive processing and memory
Summary of brain systems involved in emotion
Food reward value, pleasure, appetite, hunger, and over-eating
Overview
The control signals for hunger and satiety
Reward vs satiety signals
Sensory-specific satiety
Conditioned appetite and satiety
The brain control of eating and reward
Brain mechanisms for taste reward value
Taste processing up to and including the primary taste cortex of primates is related to the identity of the tastant, and not to its reward value
Taste and taste-related processing in the orbitofrontal (secondary taste) cortex, including umami taste, astringency, fat, viscosity, temperature and capsaicin
The reward value of taste is represented in the orbitofrontal cortex
Taste processing in rodents
Convergence between taste and olfactory processing to represent flavour
Brain mechanisms for the reward produced by the odour of food
The responses of orbitofrontal cortex taste and olfactory neurons to the sight of food: expected value neurons
Functions of the amygdala in feeding
Functions of the orbitofrontal cortex in eating
Output pathways for feeding
Obesity and the reward value of food
Genetic factors
Brain processing of the sensory properties and pleasantness of food
Food palatability
Sensory-specific satiety
Fixed meal times, and the availability of food
Food saliency, and portion size
Energy density of food
Eating rate
Stress
Food craving
Energy output
Cognitive factors, and attention
Weight gain in women at midlife
Compliance with information about risk factors for obesity
Untitled
Pharmacology of emotion, reward, and addiction; the basal ganglia
Overview of the pharmacology of emotion
Dopamine systems in the brain
Dopamine pharmacology
Dopamine pathways
Self-administration of dopaminergic substances, and addiction
Behaviours associated with the release of dopamine
Dopamine neurons and reward prediction error
The basal ganglia as an output system for emotional and motivational behaviour
Overview of the basal ganglia
Systems-level architecture of the basal ganglia
Neuronal activity in different parts of the striatum
Opiate reward systems, analgesia, and food reward
Pharmacology of anxiety in relation to brain systems involved in emotion
Cannabinoids
Sexual behaviour, reward, and brain function
Introduction
Mate selection, attractiveness, and love
Female preferences
Male preferences
Pair-bonding, and love
Parental attachment, care, and parent–offspring conflict
Sperm competition and its consequences for sexual behaviour: a sociobiological approach
Female cryptic choice and its consequences for sexual behaviour
Concealed ovulation and concealed estrus and their consequences for sexual behaviour
Sexual selection of sexual and non-sexual behaviour
Sexual selection and natural selection
Non-sexual characteristics may be sexually selected for courtship
Brain regions involved in the control of sexual behaviour, and especially in the rewards produced by sexual behaviour
Olfactory rewards and pheromones
Preoptic area and hypothalamus
Orbitofrontal cortex and related areas
Conclusion
Decision-making and attractor networks
Overview of decision-making
Decision-making in an attractor network
An attractor decision-making network
The operation of a model of decision-making
Using the model to locate reward-related decision-making attractor networks in the brain
Implications and applications of this approach to decision-making
Multiple decision-making systems in the brain
Distributed decision-making
Predicting a decision before the evidence is provided
The matching law
Symmetry-breaking
The evolutionary utility of probabilistic choice
Unpredictable behaviour
Memory recall
Creative thought
Decision-making between the emotional and rational systems
Dynamical neuropsychiatry: schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and memory changes in normal aging
Depression
Introduction
The economic and social cost of depression
The triggers and causes of depression: non-reward systems
Brain systems that underlie depression
A non-reward attractor theory of depression
Evidence consistent with the non-reward attractor theory of depression
Advances in understanding the functions of the orbitofrontal cortex and other brain systems in depression
Overview
Orbitofrontal cortex
Anterior cingulate cortex
Posterior cingulate cortex
Amygdala
Precuneus
Effective connectivity in depression
Depression and poor sleep quality
Possible subtypes of depression
Implications for treatments
Brain-based treatments
Behavioural treatments and cognitive therapy
Pharmacological treatments for depression
Serotonin (HT)
Ketamine
Mania and bipolar disorder
Mania, increased responsiveness to reward, and decreased responsiveness to non-reward
Attractor networks, mania, increased responsiveness to reward, and decreased responsiveness to non-reward
Other aspects of bipolar disorder
Rational vs emotional routes to action, and consciousness
Multiple routes to action; reasoning vs emotion
Some of the different routes to action produced by emotion-related stimuli
Examples of some complex behaviours that may be performed implicitly
A reasoning, rational, route to action
The Selfish Gene vs The Selfish Phenotype
Decision-making between the implicit and explicit systems
A higher order syntactic thought theory of consciousness
Rolls’ higher order syntactic thought (HOST) theory of consciousness
Adaptive value of processing in the system that is related to consciousness
Comparison with other theories of consciousness
Higher-order thought theories
Oscillations and temporal binding
A high neural threshold for information to reach consciousness
James–Lange theory and Damasio’s somatic marker hypothesis about feelings
LeDoux’s approach to emotion and consciousness
Global workspace theories of consciousness
Monitoring and consciousness
Conclusions, and broader issues
Conclusions
Selection of optimal actions by explicit rational thought
Emotion and ethics
Emotion and aesthetics
Close
Appendix Glossary
General
Learning theory terms
References
Index